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G is determined from the angular acceleration of the turntable associated with the torsion balance when the amount of twisting of the fibre is reduced to zero.

In the real world of sport, the point of inception of every vector such as displacement, velocity, linear momentum linear acceleration, force, and angle, angular velocity, angular momentum, angular acceleration and torque, also matter.

John Lloyd, one of the researchers, says helmet add-ons tend to focus on reducing linear acceleration, which some sports injury experts say is less linked to concussions than angular acceleration is.

Compared to helmets without add-ons, those fitted with the Guardian Cap, Concussion Reduction Technology and Shockstrips reduced linear accelerations by about 11 percent, but only reduced angular accelerations by 2 percent.

The rotation rate is so fast that the angular acceleration at the sphere surface is one billion times that of gravity on the Earth surface.