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"Every time more of these are launched with these kinds of emission levels, we see less and less of the sky," Professor Jessica Dempsey, director of ASTRON, told BBC News.

When Dempsey sought to renew ASTRON’s energy contracts this summer, she was shocked to find costs had tripled from 2021 levels.

The country’s third-biggest crude oil refinery, a 100,000 bpd facility operated by Astron Energy in Cape Town, also suffered an explosion earlier this year.

She said Astron would release an updated statement later.

A company spokeswoman did not immediately respond to calls, and the fire brigade referred all queries to Astron Energy.