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Photo by Deborah Hutchinson An Asian relative of the gartersnake, Rhabdophis tigrinus, was conclusively shown to sequester bufadienolide toxins from toads in 2007 by Debbie Hutchinson and colleagues, although it was suspected for years beforehand.

That suggests that bluetongue lineages from mother-of-millions areas have built up a resistance to bufadienolide over time.