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Back then, fear of centralism sprang from populists such as William Jennings Bryan, who hankered for easier credit for farmers.

“EU competencies have clear boundaries, we must not remain silent when those boundaries are breached. So we are saying yes to European universalism, but we say no to European centralism,” he said.

They admire its ruthless centralism, its desire for conquest, its ability to maintain law and order—and its religious tolerance, which allowed Christianity and Islam to coexist.

They’re often seen as representatives of the Spanish nation, of centralism, even of the state.

That is why the issue is not secession as such, but the state centralism that is usually its cause.