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Even after fitting hundreds of working-class women with caps, she still associates cervical cap use with women who need contraception because they cannot afford to have more pregnancies.

There was crocodile dung in ancient Egypt, Aristotle's recommendation of cedar oil, and Casanova's method of using half a lemon as a cervical cap.

This 1920s cervical cap fit over the cervix to prevent sperm from entering the uterus.

In Giacomo Casanova’s memoirs, written in the late 18th century, he takes credit for inventing a primitive version of the cervical cap, when he describes using partly squeezed lemon halves during sex.

Aristotle proposed cedar oil and frankincense oil as spermicides; Casanova wrote of using half a lemon as a cervical cap.