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"The framework for analyzing this collective behavior resides in the fundamental pheromone concentration gradient, then working from there," Karamched said.

The authors' "Eureka moment" occurred when, in their discussion, they realized that a property of every catalyst known as the kinetic asymmetry controls the direction of response to a concentration gradient.

Due to this concentration gradient, both types of ions have a strong urge to flow into the cells -- making them ideal for use as messenger substances.

Many crystals contain defects whose concentration varies across the crystal; the resulting concentration gradient breaks the macroscopic symmetry of the crystal, causing residual piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity3.

By pumping out Cl−, KCC2 can control the concentration gradient and so limit how strongly target neurons are inhibited by these neurotransmitters.