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However, its crustal abundance is nearly 100 times that of Ru, indicating that these new electrocatalytic materials can be synthesized in sufficiently large amounts to enable hydrogen mass-production using water electrolyzers.

On Earth, volcanism is driven primarily by heat and crustal recycling associated with plate tectonics, but Mars lacks plate tectonics and the driver of volcanism is not well understood.

The temperature along the plate boundary and the amount of strain built up is well studied there, and the results of their model match crustal movements based on satellite observations, the scientists said.

The majority of Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Northwest Territories and Nunavut is made up of Archean crustal fragments that are dominated by TTGs and their slightly younger and more evolved granite counterparts.

To the south of a line lay springs with crustal signatures, and to the north lay springs with mantle fingerprints.