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In 2019, the year after Lijian says he was hospitalised, the Chinese Medical Doctor Association updated its ECT guidelines, stating it should only ever be administered with consent, and under general anaesthetic.

Since 2001, nearly 160 legal actions based on the ECT have been brought by investors claiming their investments had been damaged by green policies such as renewable-energy subsidies, and seeking compensation from governments.

More than half of those given ketamine showed improvement, compared with about 41% for those receiving ECT.

While these findings establish a link between aperiodic activity and ECT benefits, the researchers stress the need for further investigation to leverage these insights in clinical applications.

But even among proponents, there's little consensus as to what mechanism underlies ECT's therapeutic effect.