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The herdsmen all stood up, fear unmistakable in their eyes, and left.

Unlike the Islamic extremists that staged the Chibok kidnappings, the deadly criminal gangs terrorizing villages in northwestern Nigeria are mostly former herdsmen who were in conflict with farming host communities, according to authorities.

New study by ICTA-UAB and the University of Cádiz reveals that the first farmers and herdsmen settled in Andalusia collected and consumed shellfish throughout the year, especially in winter.

He said it was a "stark and salutary lesson to herdsmen", adding: "It was a tragedy that could and should have been avoided."

Bavarian herdsmen prepare their clothes before they drive their beasts during the return of the cattle from the summer pastures in the mountains near Oberstdorf, Germany.