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The review carried out suggests inactivated vaccines are a safe and affordable option that primarily activate humoral immunity -- the part of our immune system that produces antibodies.

These vaccines work by triggering both cellular and humoral immune responses against the spike protein of the virus.

Take humoral theory: In the Middle Ages, the body was thought to consist of four liquid components called humors—blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.

Across the whole cohort of 165, evidence of previous natural infection was seen in 8 donors and associated with 691-fold and 4-fold increase in humoral and cellular immune responses, according to the report.

“These results, together with the induction of both humoral and cellular immune responses, support largescale evaluation of this candidate vaccine in an ongoing phase 3 program.”