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The review carried out suggests inactivated vaccines are a safe and affordable option that primarily activate humoral immunity -- the part of our immune system that produces antibodies.

"Particulate vaccines are of great interest for many in immunology because they give you robust humoral immunity, which is antibody-based immunity, which is differentiated from the T-cell-based immunity that the mRNA vaccines seem to elicit more strongly," Bathe says.

“Our patient was immunocompromised, because of Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia treated with B-cell-depleting therapy, resulting in a declined humoral immunity,” the researchers wrote.

Functional studies of human T2 cells as well as mouse models of allergy showed that deletion of one of the genes, S100A4, resulted in decreased signs of allergy including T2 cell activation, humoral immunity, and infiltration of effector cells.

By contrast, most of the successful vaccines in use today are based on humoral immunity, which mainly involves the production and secretion of antibodies into the extracellular fluid.