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This area of the brainstem receives interoceptive input, or signals from the body about its internal state, like hunger, pain and fullness.

Although the study used only subjective reports and didn't measure objective physiological changes in the body, the data suggest that art perception is an interoceptive process: it involves awareness of the body's internal state.

Just as touch, taste, and smell help us encode sensory information about the outside world, our interoceptive senses alert us to what’s going on inside our bodies.

Meanwhile, chronically high glucose levels—communicated through the vagus and other interoceptive pathways—cause the habenula to respond less vigorously to nicotine, prompting the rats to seek more of the drug.

One form of therapy that can help with panic attacks, Gallagher said, is interoceptive exposures.