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Short-chain PFAS, some of which can be toxic at low doses, are becoming more prevalent as many manufacturers use them as a replacement for the long-chain compounds.

At the time, the thinking was that short-chain chemicals were safer; testing and scientific study into long-chain chemicals was more extensive.

By subjecting nitrogen and methane gases to light and radiation, they produced sticky grains made up of long-chain carbon-based molecules.

He hypothesized that the long-chain molecules were created in the atmospheres of carbon-rich red giant stars.

Sardines, oysters, mussels, wild salmon and cod are sources of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids that are essential for brain health.