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Minerals found on the deep seabed including manganese, nickel, cobalt, gold and silver are all considered important materials for the green energy transition.

In 2022, SecDev, a geopolitical risk consultancy based in Canada, conducted an evaluation, which established that Russia had occupied 63% of Ukrainian coal mines, and half of its manganese, caesium, tantalum and rare earth deposits.

South Africa exports a variety of minerals to the US, including platinum, iron and manganese.

Packed full of cobalt, nickel and manganese, these ancient formations are now valuable: the metals go into batteries that power modern life, from electric cars to mobile phones.

Nickel, cobalt, and manganese enter the solution, where they are bound into stable complexes by the citric acid anions.