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Planning permission for the mine at Whitehaven, Cumbria, was overturned by the High Court last year following a campaign by environmental groups.

Horvitz has a handshake deal with the property owner, who gave him permission to build a garden with the knowledge that the lot could be developed or sold in the future.

It is believed the last time people ventured on to Heard Island was in 2016, when a group of amateur radio enthusiasts broadcasted from there with permission of the Australian government.

But he felt an entirely different emotion when he found out that those works had appeared on LibGen - a so-called "shadow library" containing millions of books and academic papers taken without permission.

Mr Black said AI was becoming a growing threat to independent publishers, with many tools using their original content without permission and presenting it in different formats for others to benefit from.