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Pneumoencephalography was a technique developed in 1919 for taking images of the brain, which floats in a sea of fluid.

Pneumoencephalography involved drilling holes into the skulls of research subjects, draining the fluid surrounding their brains, and pumping air or helium into the skull in place of the fluid to allow crisp X-rays of the brain through the skull.

Because pneumoencephalography could cause permanent brain damage and paralysis, it was abandoned in the 1970s.

Based on the number of patients listed in the pneumoencephalography study and the years it was conducted, Lurz told me later, it most likely involved every epileptic child in the hospital, including Elsie.