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And, with the addition of some reactants, oxygen-containing molecules began to bubble out.

"One is sintering, in which you lose surface sites that undertake the reaction. The other is the formation of coke -- basically solid carbon that blocks the catalyst from contacting the reactants."

The team used electrocatalysis, a type of chemical reaction initiated by electron transfers to and from reactants on surfaces of catalysts, to convert carbon dioxide into biocompatible intermediates, such as acetate and ethanol.

This process involves destabilizing one of the aromatic rings in quinoline, using light and sometimes a catalyst, so that a reactant can 'latch' onto the ring, forming the target compound.

Flows in liquid channels exhibit uneven velocity distribution due to friction with the walls, which subsequently influences the transport of dissolved substances and diffusing reactants in the liquid.