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She says the sought-after polymetallic nodules are themselves home to some creatures, which use them as a substrate.

Liu began to wonder if perhaps something else was using pipecolic acid as a substrate, using it up so that there was less left over for the expected production of N-hydroxypipecolic acid.

Organic solar cells are produced in a physical mixture which is then placed on a substrate and the solvent in the mixture evaporates.

Living cells are encapsulated in a substrate like a hydrogel to make a bioink, which is then printed in layers using a specialized printer.

However, they have been limited by the high temperatures required to produce high-quality thin films, making them difficult to apply to flexible substrates such as heat-sensitive plastics.