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The well-to-do and resourceful residents of Palisades are important to the city’s tax base and cultural life, but they have options, he said.

“What I mean by a ‘dying’ town: there is no tax base, and no infrastructure, really.

“I mean it brought tax base back to the city,” says Mr Simon, who still lives and works in Baltimore.

In distressed communities, grocery stores have been shown to anchor business development, help grow the tax base and even boost home values, according to one study of Pennsylvania's program.

For example, if income tax is devolved and the income tax base grows more slowly in Northern Ireland than the rest of the UK, this could lead to a loss of revenue.