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Some of these defects, including the NV center, can host what are known as electronic spins, which originate from the valence electrons around the site of the defect.

Valence electrons are those in the outermost shell of an atom.

Deskins performed the computational simulations and found that homogenous mixing of nickel and cobalt oxides and hydroxides benefited the electron redistribution from Ni2+ to Co3+ species and shifting valence electrons to higher energy so the Ni/Co catalysts were better prepared to participate in bonding with urea and water molecules.

They theorized that sodium's core electrons, thought to be inert, would interact with each other and the outer valence electrons when under extreme pressure.

Valence electrons -- those residing in an atom's outermost shell and engaging in bonding with other atoms -- proved to be a pivotal factor.