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Per the viva voce system, a practice with roots in Ancient Greece, eligible voters would call out the names of their preferred candidates to a government clerk, who registered votes in a pollbook.

In his last Facebook post, Krishnan referred to this new rule: “There is no equality in MPhil/PhD admission, there is no equality in viva voce – there is only denial of equality.”

He wrote that students from marginalized groups, including Dalits and lower castes, faced discrimination in admissions to master’s and doctorate programs and in the oral exams, known as “viva voce,” that determine final grades.

Over all, Mrs. Clinton’s promotional ads did more to boost her own favorable ratings than these specialized attack ads, which makes them as effective as the viva voce attacks at influencing people.

The accompanying oral examination — also called a viva voce or defence — can be a public lecture, a private discussion or not happen at all.